Firstly, what does auteur theory mean? Essay

Firstly, what does auteur theory mean? It compares the film director to the author of a book, it attributes artistic control to the director and proposes that the film is the artistic project of the director primarily. His or her vision, creativity, and design determine the end result, the finished film. Basically, it means that if the director is an auteur, the film will be completely their ideas and visions and they have complete control of it. I believe Danny Boyle uses this control to make his films. Danny Boyle was born in Manchester in 1956. He started a career in theatre at the age of 18 and by the time he left the Royal Court Theatre in 1987 he was the deputy director. He also did some television direction in the 80s including Mr Wroe’s Virgins and episodes of Inspector Morse. Shallow Grave, released in 1994, was Danny Boyle’s first film. It took 30 days to film and had a budget of i 1,000,000. i 150,000 was from Glasgow Film Fund and the remaining i 850,000 came from Channel Four. Although the film was set in Edinburgh, the money from Glasgow meant that a lot of the film was made there. The film’s scriptwriter John Hodge was very clear minded about how to get the film made for â€Å"virtually nothing†, for instance the majority of the film is filmed inside a flat. Danny Boyle said the film has â€Å"fascinating character development† but not in the â€Å"traditional† way because â€Å"audiences are not there primarily to watch a character being drawn†¦ they want the excitement and speed of the journey that cinema can provide†. He described the film as â€Å"intelligent entertainment†, meaning that it doesn’t patronise audiences and there’s an agenda behind the film if they want to look for one. He, John Hodge and producer Andrew MacDonald all wanted the film to be a partnership of 3 performers. They didn’t approach one major star because they thought the audiences would all be concentrating on that one person. To prepare for the film, Boyle lived in a flat for a week with the three actors. CLIP OF SHALLOW GRAVE Trainspotting, released in 1996, was the second film from the team of Danny Boyle, Andrew MacDonald and John Hodge. The screenplay was adapted from the Irvine Welsh novel of the same name. John Hodge took some persuading to make the film – he described the novel as having â€Å"no story† and Welsh’s prose as â€Å"dialogue-driven†. Again, it took 30 days to shoot. The film cost i 1. 6 million, financed by Channel 4 who was able to pre-sell it on the back of the success of Shallow Grave. The film went on to take i 13 million worldwide and is the second highest grossing British film of all time – after Four Weddings and a Funeral. Danny Boyle thoroughly researched heroin addiction for the film – he met a lot of addicts and got them to talk to the actors and held â€Å"cookery classes† where the actors learnt how to cook up. Ewan McGregor also read all the books he could find on the subject. Ewan McGregor was the only advance casting the team made – all the other actors had to audition. Robert Carlyle expects to play the lead in a film but he accepted playing a part under McGregor so the team â€Å"knew [they] were getting thoroughbreds all the way down†. The film was criticised for its â€Å"neutral attitude† to drugs but Boyle said that patronising and preaching to today’s youth was pointless and in today’s culture you need to speak directly to them. So, the film shows the dangers drugs can provide but also the pleasures. Danny Boyle used the soundtrack in this film to move the narrative along quickly – it moves through time, but also to attract audiences. CLIP OF TRAINSPOTTING The team rejected Alien 4 in 1997 to make A Life Less Ordinary. Danny Boyle said of the Alien film â€Å"I don’t do storyboards†. He was worried he would not have the creative freedom he liked and he would become swamped in high pressure film-making. The film was bigger than their previous two – it took 50 days to shoot and had a budget of i 7. 5 million, financed by Twentieth Century Fox. Despite this and the fact it was a romantic comedy shot in Utah, Danny Boyle still considers it a British film, albeit partly so. He said he wanted to combine the two cultures as much as possible but the film wasn’t developed in America, was made by the three of them and starred Ewan McGregor. He shot the film in America and brought it home to edit. The film uses the same surrealism that sometimes appears in Trainspotting. CLIP OF A LIFE LESS ORDINARY The Beach, released in 2000, was the first film made by the team that didn’t star Ewan McGregor. It is a Hollywood film with a budget of i 25 million financed by Twenty-first Century Fox. Before the team even approached the studio, they bought the rights to the book, adapted the screenplay and travelled to Thailand to research so that when they did contact the studio, they had a script, photos of locations and knew what the budget would need to be. In Alex Garland’s original book, Leonardo DiCaprio’s character Richard is English. Boyle felt this would not have worldwide appeal so he chose to make him American and chose Leo to play him. In the film, Richard lies to his girlfriend about sleeping with another woman and later splits up with her. The studio tried to get Boyle to change these things but he retained his creative control. This film is a perfect example of how he lures audiences into his films then shocks them. This film has all elements to make a film popular – big Hollywood star, soundtrack, adventure, romance – but the story soon changes to a much darker one than an average Hollywood blockbuster. There were reports of Boyle being disrespectful to Thailand authorities and damaging land but he made every effort not to and he is proud of his end result, as this quote shows.

Achievement Motivation Essay

What is it? This links personality with the degree of competitiveness shown by an individual. Its main focus is the extent to which an individual is motivated to attain success. Some Theories about it   Murray (1938) indicated that it was natural for individual to strive to surpass another (genetically) like trait. Bandura (1977) believed that a competitive drive was a product of learning (social learning). Atkinson and McCelland (1976) has the view of an interactionist and predicts achievement motivation is generated through a combination of personality and situation factors. Atkinson and McCelland view of achievement motivation as a personality trait which is activated by a situation, the situation comprises the probability of success and the incentive value of success. -Probability of success;the extent to which success is likely;For example success is more likely of the task is found by the individual to be easy. -Incentive value of success;the incentive value experienced by the individual after success-been achieved. For example the harder the task the greater will be the incentive value because the probability of success is reduced. There are two personality types to determine achievement motivation and these are; 1.High need to achieve (high Nach) Linked with the low need to avoid failure (Low Naf). With these characteristic, desire to succeed overcomes the fear of failure. These performers=high in achievement motivation (high achievers) 2.Low need to achieve (Low Nach) Also linked with high need to avoid failure (High Naf). These characteristics the fear of failure overcome the desire to success. These performers=low in achievement motivation (low achievers) Characteristics of high and low achievement motivation personality traits. High Nach Personality Characteristics Low Nach personality characteristics High need to achieve Low need to achieve Low need to avoid failure High need to avoid failure Approach behaviour is adopted Avoidance behaviour is adopted Challenges is accepted Challenges is rejected Risks are undertaken Risks are declined Shows persistence and perseverance when task is difficult Curtails effort when task is difficult Success tends to be attributed to external factors Failure tends to be attributed to internal factors Failure is seen as a route to success Failure is seen as the route to further failure Aspire to mastery orientation Adopt learned helpessness Key Terms Approach behaviour-describes behaviour that accepts a challenge Avoidance behaviour-describes behaviour that rejects a challenge Attribution-The process that predict reasons for success or failure Mastery Orientation-The strong motive to succeed found in the high achievement. This type of person will expect to succeed but will persist when failure is experienced Learned helplessness-The belief that failure is inevitable and that the individual has no control over the factors that cause failure. Atkinson and McCelland Their theory of achievement motivation is best at predicting behavioural responses in situations where there is a 50/50 chance of success. This will trigger motivation for those performers with high achievement traits=likely  to display approach behaviour and mastery orientation characteristics in these circumstances. Incentive value=high when chance is evenly balanced. In contrast to performers who show low achievement motivation would experience greatest anxiety in situations with a 50/50 chance of success— later adopt avoidance behaviour and experience learned helplessness. Approach or avoidance behaviours likely to arise when in a evaluative situation=Situation in which an individual believes they are being assessed. Drawbacks 1.Achievement or success can interpreted in many ways. Some performers regard success as victory over others. For example a long jump athlete winning an event. These people are said to have ego goal orientation. Those with this believe that ability and comparison over others=criteria for success. 2.Others judge on the basis of person improvement in a given task-For example a second long jump athlete may view success as the achievement of an improved performance. These people are said to have task orientation. Those with the task orientation value internal goals and believe that effort and comparison with self=criteria for success. Sport Specific Achievement Motivation(Competitiveness) Competitiveness in this context means- motivation to achieve in sport. Gill and Deeter (1988), using their own test called the ‘Sport Orientation Questionnaire’ (SOQ), confirmed that athletes were far more competitive than non-athletes. As as statement, this would appear obvious. Evidence of greater significance-athletes favoured performance goals (task orientation) while non-athletes emphasised the importance of winning (ego orientation) The type of goal set by the teacher as the measure of success in sport-related activities has, therefore, a significant influence upon the decision to adopt and sustain an active and healthy lifestyle. The important association between sport-specific motivation (competitiveness), confidence and goal setting.

Barack Obama Essay Sample

Barack Hussein Obama II. born August 4. 1961. a alumnus of Columbia University and Harvard Law School. is the 44th and current president of the United States. For your information. he is besides the first African American to keep the office. He was a community organiser in Chicago before gaining his jurisprudence grade. He besides worked as civil-rights attorney and instructor before prosecuting a political calling. He was subsequently elected to the Illinois State Senate in 1996. functioning from 1997 to 2004. He was elected to the U. S. presidential term in 2008. President Obama continues to ordain policy alterations in response to the issues of wellness attention and economic crisis. Early LifeObama was born on August 4. 1961. at Kapi?olani Maternity A ; Gynecological Hospital ( now Kapi?olani Medical Center for Women and Children ) in Honolulu. Hawaii. and is the firstPresident to hold been born in Hawaii. His female parent. Ann Dunham. was born in Wichita. Kansas. and was of largely English lineage. His male parent. Barack Obama. Sr. . was a Luo from Nyang’oma Kogelo. Kenya. Obama’s parents met in 1960 in a Russian category at the University of Hawai?i at Manoa. where his male parent was a foreign pupil on scholarship. The twosome was married on February 2. 1961 and Barack was born six months subsequently. Obama did non hold a relationship with his male parent as a kid. When his boy was still an baby. Obama Sr. relocated to Massachusetts to go to Harvard University. prosecuting a Ph. D. Barack’s parents officially separated several months subsequently and finally divorced in March 1964. when their boy was 2. In 1965. Obama Sr. returned to Kenya. In 1965. Dunham married Lolo Soetoro. an East–West Center pupil from Indonesia. A twelvemonth subsequently. the household moved to Jakarta. Indonesia. where Barack’s half sister. Maya Soetoro Ng. was born. Several incidents in Indonesia left Dunham afraid for her son’s safety and instruction so. at the age of 10. Barack was sent back to Hawaii to populate with his maternal grandparents. Exceling in School While populating with his grandparents. Obama enrolled in the honored Punahou Academy. stand outing in hoops and graduating with academic awards in 1979. As one of merely three black pupils at the school. Obama became witting of racism and what it meant to be Afro-american. He subsequently described how he struggled to accommodate societal perceptual experiences of his multiracial heritage with his ain sense of ego: â€Å"I began to detect at that place was cipher like me in the Sears. Roebuck Christmas catalog †¦ and that Santa was a white adult male. † he said. â€Å"I went to the bathroom and stood in forepart of the mirror with all my senses and limbs apparently integral. looking the manner I had ever looked. and wondered if something was incorrect with me. † Obama besides struggled with the absence of his male parent. who he saw merely one time more after his parents divorced. when Obama Sr. visited Hawaii for a short clip in 1971. â€Å" [ My male parent ] had left Eden. and nil that my female parent or grandparents told me could rid of that individual. impregnable fact. † he subsequently reflected. â€Å"They couldn’t describe what it might hold been like had he stayed. † After high school. Obama studied at Occidental College in Los Angeles for two old ages. He so transferred to Columbia University in New York. graduating in 1983 with a grade in political scientific discipline. After working in the concern sector for two old ages. Obama moved to Chicago in 1985. There. he worked on the South Side as a community organiser for low-income occupants in the Roseland and the Altgeld Gardens communities Obama honed leading accomplishments as a community militant Barack Obama’s meteorologic rise from the streets of Chicago to the U. S. Senate to winning the presidential nomination of the Democratic Party showcases the alone experiences and accomplishments he has gained in his old ages as an organiser. legislator and community militant. After graduating from Columbia University. Obama worked for a Harlem environmental and consumer protagonism organisation in New York City. In 1985 he was hired in Chicago as a community organiser for $ 10. 000 and a used auto. As a staff member for the Developing Communities Project. Obama worked with churches on the city’s industrial South Side to form workers who had lost their occupations due to the steel factory and mill shuttings. After three old ages in some of the toughest vicinities of Chicago. Obama decided to go to Harvard Law School. assuring to return to these same streets. After being elected the first Afro-american president of the Harvard Law Review. Obama could hold turned his acad emic success into a six-figure occupation with a esteemed jurisprudence house. Alternatively he chose to maintain his promise. He returned to Chicago in 1991 where he joined a little civil rights house and ran a elector enrollment thrust that put 150. 000 new electors on the axial rotations. assisting Bill Clinton carry Illinois in 1992. In 1996 he was elected province senator from his Chicago territory. In the Illinois Legislature. Obama worked with Democrats and Republicans to assist working households get in front by making a province Earned Income Tax Credit. He besides pushed through enlargement of an early childhood instruction plan. He besides played an of import function in outlining bipartizan moralss reform statute law that has made Illinois one of the best provinces in the state for run finance revelation. In 2004 Obama was elected U. S. senator from Illinois. where he has continued to show exceeding leading in facing tough issues. As a member of the Senate Committee on Veterans’ Affairs. he has strongly supported Virginia Democratic Sen. Jim Webb’s new G. I. Bill that would supply instruction benefits for all veterans of the Iraq and Afghanistan wars. Showing his ability to make across the aisle. Obama traveled to Russia with Republican Sen. Dick Lugar of Indiana to get down a new coevals of non-proliferation attempts to happen and maintain deathly arms out of the custodies of terrorists around the universe. In his first twelvemonth as senator. Obama scored a 93 per centum evaluation on cardinal legislative issues identified by the UAW. Over his four old ages as senator. he has stood with working households by voting for a rise in the minimal pay. for the Employee Free Choice Act with card-check acknowledgment in brotherhood forming thrusts. and for the right of Medicare to negociate with drug companies to cut costs for seniors. He has besides stood with us to oppose Republican attempts to privatise Social Security. base on balls another â€Å"free† trade pact for Central America ( CAFTA ) and cut Medicaid coverage for the hapless. President Barack Obama and Transformative Leadership Over the past two old ages. we have seen what some have called a transformative presentation of leading. This procedure culminated on January 20th with the startup of Barack Obama as the 44th President of the United States. Whether or non you agree with his political relations ( and Prime Business Alert! is unquestionably nonpartizan ) . you have to esteem his journey and appreciate his leading capablenesss. You can besides larn a great trade about effectual leading and sustained. high-ranking public presentation by analyzing his unlikely and meteorologic rise. From low beginnings. holding to predominate over the double â€Å"handicaps† of race and fatherlessness. and overcome two of the most formidable political forces in history ( the Clintons and the Republican Party ) . President Obama showed us that a individual with imaginativeness. finding. and religion could overcome incalculable odds and rise to the highest and most powerful office in the universe. During his full campaigning. he exhibited the leading qualities that led to this landmark accomplishment: * President Obama saw chance where others saw obstructions ; * Saw solutions where others saw jobs ; * Hade assurance when others had uncertainty ;* Had resolve when others wavered ;* Was disciplined when others were slack ;* Stayed composure when others panicked ;* Had hope when others lost religion ;* And. finally. he saw possibility where others saw none President Obama established several indispensable elements in his run. First. he affirmed his leading by doing clear who was in charge. what messages would be communicated. and his committedness to those messages. At the same clip. he was unfastened to thoughts and willing to accommodate when presented with a compelling ground to make so. Second. he set the psychological science of his run. guaranting that it was positive. proactive. and focused. Third. he actively created a civilization of unity. openness. and finding that permeated throughout his run organisation. These specific messages and the manner in which he conveyed them are powerful lessons for you in your leading function at your company. President Obama besides convinced 1000000s of single Americans that they excessively could change their ain personal histories and hereafters. We saw the force of this message in interviews with African-Americans who lived through segregation and the civil-rights motion and in the voices of hope and possibility from immature African-Americans who saw what was one time impossible was now a world and that if he could travel mountains. so could they. And this message reverberated across racial age. gender. and cultural lines. President Obama showed us that. in a universe where the position quo had apparently immoveable inactiveness. alteration could go on. And in a universe that frequently times seems to be whirling out of control. he gave many the bravery to encompass the â€Å"audacity of hope. † This message of possibility and personal authorization from President Obama moved people and caused an unstoppable groundswell of support that propelled him to the Presidency. This same message can authorise your employees to accomplish their ain and your company’s ends and take their public presentation. productiveness. and profitableness to a new degree. President Obama besides showed us that disconnected persons with a common vision could blend into a formidable force. His life and his words inspired 1000000s of antecedently uninvolved Americans to come in the political sphere and stand up for what they believed. But. despite what many people think. inspiration is non his greatest gift. President Obama’s existent strengths are non merely to animate. but besides to inform and transform. He gave people the information and tools they needed to concentrate and direct their inspiration. And so he transformed that inspiration and information into action. By working both low-tech ( boots on the land ) and hi-tech ( the Internet ) means. he created what was surely the most powerful political run in history. As a leader. you can unify your corporate squad in the same manner. First. make a shared vision of what your squad wants to carry through. Making this a collaborative attempt additions â€Å"buy in† and ownership. Second. give your squad the cognition they need to make their occupations separately and jointly to the best of their ability. Third. supply them with the resources to turn their inspiration and information into action. President Obama now faces the most intimidating trial of his leading accomplishments as he attempts to hammer a sense of integrity. where others have tried and failed. in a political civilization that has many political. economic. and cultural cabals. Can he animate. inform. and transform those who have cardinal dissensions with him? To make so. he will hold to marshal all of his singular leading accomplishments. In this clip of crisis. his oratory gifts can animate all Americans to put aside little concerns and work together to get the better of the current challenges at place and abroad. This ability involves bordering dissentious issues in footings that transcend specific political orientations and concentrate on larger cosmopolitan subjects. He began this procedure in his inaugural address when he declared. â€Å"We gather because we have chosen hope over fright. integrity of intent over struggle and strife. † The same sort of divergency of positions can disable a company every bit good. The ability to animate your employees. beat up them around a shared cause. demonstrate regard for all positions. and happen common land is an indispensable accomplishment for supplying leading to a successful company. President Obama’s confident. composure. and commanding presence in these hard times can animate trust that he has America’s best involvements at bosom despite policy differences. His celebrated regard for diverse point of views and willingness to listen to others can besides promote â€Å"buy in† from those less inclined to make so. And his thoughtful and far-reaching responses to issues that impact all Americans can convert even those who might be immune to. at a lower limit. give him a opportunity to turn out himself right. Similarly. a manner of corporate leading that is important. yet empathetic and trusty. can cut down the fires of struggle and promote those with different thoughts to be unfastened to others’ point of views and be willing to happen via media for the good of the person and the company. In the concern universe. there are profound lessons to be learned from analyzing President Obama’s leading capablenesss. By using his accomplishments and schemes to your work. you can make your ain transformative leading experience that can assist you and your company to accomplish its ends. Cultural and political imageObama’s household history. upbringing. and Ivy League instruction differ markedly from those of African American politicians who launched their callings in the sixtiess through engagement in the civil rights motion. Expressing bewilderment over inquiries about whether he is â€Å"black enough† . Obama told an August 2007 meeting of the National Association of Black Journalists that â€Å"we’re still locked in this impression that if you appeal to white folks so there must be something wrong† . Obama acknowledged his vernal image in an October 2007 run address. stating: â€Å"I wouldn’t be here if. clip and once more. the torch had non been passed to a new coevals. † Obama is often referred to as an exceeding speechmaker. During his pre-inauguration passage period and go oning into his presidential term. Obama has delivered a series of hebdomadal Internet picture references. Harmonizing to the Gallup Organization. O bama began his presidential term with a 68 % blessing evaluation before bit by bit worsening for the remainder of the twelvemonth. and finally bottoming out at 41 % in August 2010. a tendency similar to Ronald Reagan’s and Bill Clinton’s first old ages in office. He experienced a little canvass bounciness shortly after the decease of Osama bin Laden. which lasted until around June 2011. when his blessing Numberss dropped back to where they were prior to the operation. Polls show strong support for Obama in other states. and before being elected President he met with outstanding foreign figures including British Prime Minister Tony Blair. Italy’s Democratic Party leader and Mayor of Rome Walter Veltroni. and Gallic President Nicolas Sarkozy. In a February 2009 canvass conducted in Western Europe and the U. S. by Harris Interactive for France 24 and the International Herald Tribune. Obama was rated as the most well-thought-of universe leader. every bit good as the most powerful. In a similar canvass conducted by Harris in May 2009. Obama was rated as the most popular universe leader. every bit good as the one figure most people would trap their hopes on for drawing the universe out of the economic downswing. Obama won Best Spoken Word Al bum Grammy Awards for abridged audiobook versions of Dreams from My Father in February 2006 and for The Audacity of Hope in February 2008. His grant address after the New Hampshire primary was set to music by independent creative persons as the music picture â€Å"Yes We Can† . which was viewed 10 million times on YouTube in its first month and received a Daytime Emmy Award. In December 2008. Time magazine named Obama as its Person of the Year for his historic campaigning and election. which it described as â€Å"the steady March of apparently impossible accomplishments† . On October 9. 2009. the Norse Nobel Committee announced that Obama had won the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize â€Å"for his extraordinary attempts to beef up international diplomatic negotiations and cooperation between peoples† . Obama accepted this award in Oslo. Norway on December 10. 2009. with â€Å"deep gratitude and great humbleness. The award drew a mixture of congratulations and unfavorable judgment from universe leaders and media figures. Obama is the 4th U. S. president to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize and the 3rd to go a N obel laureate while Challenges and Successs In the 2nd portion of his term as president. Obama has faced a figure of obstructions and scored some triumphs as good. He signed his health-care reform program. known as the Affordable Care Act. into jurisprudence in March 2010. Obama’s program is intended to beef up consumers’ rights and to supply low-cost insurance coverage and greater entree to medical attention. His oppositions. nevertheless. claim that â€Å"Obamacare. † as they have called it. added new costs to the country’s grandiloquent budget and may go against the Fundamental law with its demand for persons to obtain insurance. On the economic forepart. Obama has worked hard to maneuver the state through hard fiscal times. He signed the Budget Control Act of 2011 in attempt to harness in authorities disbursement and forestall the authorities from defaulting on its fiscal duties. The act besides called for the creative activity of a bipartizan commission to seek solutions to the country’s financial issues. but the group failed to make any understanding on how to work out these jobs. Obama has besides handled a figure of military and security issues. In 2011. Obama helped revoke the military policy. known as â€Å"Don’t Ask. Don’t Tell. † that prevented openly cheery military personnels from functioning in the U. S. Armed Forces. He besides gave the green visible radiation to a 2011 covert operation in Pakistan. in which a squad of U. S. Navy SEALs killed ill-famed al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden. Obama made headlines once more in June 2012. when a authorization included in his Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act ( initiated in 2010 ) was upheld by the U. S. Supreme Court. therefore leting other of import pieces of the jurisprudence to remain integral. The jurisprudence includes free wellness showings for certain citizens. limitations to stringent insurance company policies and permission for citizens under age 26 to be insured under parental programs. among several other commissariats. In a 5-4 determination. the Court voted to continue the authorization under which citizens are required to buy wellness insurance or pay a tax—a chief proviso of Obama’s health-care law—stating that while the authorization is unconstitutional. harmonizing to the Constitution’s commercialism c lause. it falls within Congress’ constitutional power to revenue enhancement. The Supreme Court opinion has been deemed a triumph for Obama. who is approaching the terminal of his first presidental term. Leadership analysis The office of the American presidential term is a multi-faceted business that requires many sorts of leading manners. This hub briefly discusses some of the chapeaus worn by American President Barack Obama over the past four old ages. Largely the article focuses on three wide leading manners including transformational-charismatic. cross-cultural. and contingency-situational leading. Recently. I added the sentiment polls to let you to rate how you think President Obama has faired in these countries and overall. Please experience free to take part. Transformational-charismaticBefore the election. President Barack Obama attracted the attending of American’s and aliens likewise with a apparently magnetic nature. A magnetic leader has an eldritch ability to pull others to his side and travel them to carry through a cause bigger than themselves. A magnetic attack is transformational if it invokes a lasting alteration in the people who embrace the leader’s vision. During his first term. President Obama wooed at least some to his vision by demoing the possible to do a immense difference in both domestic and foreign personal businesss Cross-Cultural-Global Leadership Under the Bush Administration. America’s image lost much of its radiance. This was largely due to a one-sided. ethnocentirc foreign policy espoused by Bush and Cheney. While non taking America’s safety demands for granted. President Obama formulated a more cross-cultural attack to the universe. believing non merely of the US’s involvements but besides the involvements of the other states as good. In the first six months on the occupation. President Obama traveled abroad more than any other president at that point of his disposal and seemed to pay careful attending to cultural norms in the topographic points where he traveled. After his first twelvemonth. the President’s effort to be more compromising to the Middle East. China. and Russia were welcomed by the universe in that he received the Nobel Peace Prize. However. some believe the President’s policies toward the Middle East helped convey about the Arab Spring which resulted in the overthrow of a t least a few pro-American governments. Contingency Leadership During his first few months in office. Mr. Obama non merely displayed culturally sensitive and transformational leading. he responded to assorted state of affairss utilizing different types of leading theoretical accounts. In this manner he modeled what has been described as eventuality leading. When going abroad Obama was compromising. low and disposed to listen before speech production. When he faced the neglecting car industry. he did non soften words but stood tough to name for necessary alterations. This was seen in how he forced GM and Chrysler to accept new MPG criterions and pare down their long-time committedness to NASCAR. Under the heat of the current foreign and economic problems. Obama worked difficult to carry through what he promised understanding that each second he waited may intend a lost place or occupation for another group of citizens. Whether one liked what he did or non. Obama did non shy off from the challenges that faced him when he accepted the occupation as president. Personaility Profile Sarah Moore and Angela Rodgers. pupils at the College of Saint Benedict in St. Joseph. Minn. . did a research undertaking on â€Å"The Personality Profile of President Barack Obama: Leadership Implications† and presented the consequences at the 6th one-year Minnesota Private Colleges Scholars at the Capitol event. Feb. 19. in the State Capitol rotunda. St. Paul. Minn. The profile revealed that Barack Obama is ambitious and confident ; modestly dominant and assertive ; suiting. concerted. and agreeable ; slightly surpassing and congenial ; and comparatively painstaking. The combination of ambitious and suiting forms in Obama’s profile suggests a â€Å"confident conciliator† personality complex. Leaderships with this personality paradigm. though self-confident and ambitious. are characteristically gracious. considerate. and benevolent. They are energetic. capturing. and agreeable. with a particular endowment for settling differences and a penchant for mediation and via media over force or coercion as a scheme for deciding struggle. They are driven chiefly by a demand for accomplishment. but besides have significant association demands and a modest demand for power. The survey offers an through empirical observation based model for expecting Obama’s public presentation as main executive. The undermentioned general anticipations sing Obama’s likely leading manner can be inferred from his personality profile: * Ambitious. self-confident. gracious. considerate * Preference for mediation and via media over force or coercion as a scheme for deciding struggle * High demand for accomplishment ; moderate demand for association ; low demand for power * More matter-of-fact than ideological * More task- than relationship oriented* Likely to move as a strong advocator in his disposal. utilizing his powers of persuasion to progress his policy vision * Preference for garnering information from a assortment of beginnings instead than trusting entirely on advisers and disposal functionaries * In covering with members of Congress. may demo penchant for avoiding unneeded struggle by seeking to stay above the disturbance in heated. extremely dissentious arguments * Preference for jointing and supporting his policies in individual instead than trusting on staff and disposal functionaries to talk for him President Obama’s 14 Leadership Traits01. Bearing02. Courage ( moral and physical bravery )03. Decisiveness04. Dependability05. Endurance06. Enthusiasm07. Enterprise08. Integrity09. Opinion10. Justice11. Knowledge12. Loyalty13. Tact14. Unselfishness He is one of the few US Presidents that was non born into wealth. He will stay an inspiration for immature draw a bead oning leaders. He achieved the Presidency through excellence in leading and those same leading accomplishments will enable him to surpass those that lack such abilities and suitably airt US involvement both internally and abroad.

Divrsity and social justice course. topic is, what is the evidance of Essay

Divrsity and social justice course. topic is, what is the evidance of idiology (point of view).what do they want you to believe - Essay Example Additionally, it also acts as a group of ideas of many people or society regarding something. In diversity and social justice, both evidence and ideology are essential. This is because evidence shows proof of an action and ideology shows the beliefs behind the action. Each society holds some beliefs and folklore; hence, when seeking justice in the society there has to be an analysis for the myths of each society (Macleod & Hickman 1329). The diversity of the societies makes the processes hard; hence, need to have the incorporation of evidence into ideology. Evidence has to be present for social justice to succeed because it acts as a proof of an action by somebody. For example, when presenting cases for justice, there has to be fairness in the ruling so that, there is consideration of both the evidence and ideology (Macleod & Hickman 1330). I believe in evidence more than in ideology. This is because ideas vary across persons in one society to the next. Evidence does not differ because it is the clear proof of something or actions by somebody. There is always an idea behind an action, whether agreeable or not to justify it; but evidence proves clearly that an action is wrong or right. It is easy to ensure justice in a society by looking at the evidence before ideology (Macleod & Hickman

Computer crimes,ethics, and privacy Research Paper

Computer crimes,ethics, and privacy - Research Paper Example The advent of computers and internet in our daily life has given rise to computer crimes, illicit activity that is carried out by the help of computers, and these crimes have had a ponderous impact on the moral values of the people, especially adolescents. In this paper we will attempt to highlight some computer crimes and explain how these crimes give rise to ethical issues. Also a detailed discussion will be made on the breach of privacy through computer crimes. The paper talks about computer technology and ethical issues it poses therefore it is perfectly related to the chapter. Computer Crimes Computer crimes are formally defined as crimes that involve a computer and a network (Moore, 4). Crimes that are carried out by the help of a computer or where computer is the target also come under computer crimes. The word cyber crime is also used interchangeably for computer crime. The most common of computer crimes include identity theft, financial theft, spamming, and breach of privacy . There has been seen a surge in cyber crimes mainly due to the increasing reliance on computers and network. Almost everything is run by computers these days and therefore can be targeted by cyber criminals. Malware (short form for malicious software) is the most prevalent form of computer crime where a person controls a computer by planting some malicious code. The attacker can install or plant the code on a system and then can enjoy great access to the computer without authorization of the user (Skoudis & Zeltser, 2). Common types of Malware include Virus, Trojan, and Worm. Malwares are used to gain access to computers, sometimes just for fun. They can delete important files and can also slow down the speed of the system. Identity theft is another computer crime that can make life of a computer user miserable. The effects of this computer crime are more ponderous than Malware as it can financially hurt the individual. Identity theft involves stealing information of extremely pers onal nature in order to use it for some benefit. Mainly hackers try to gain access to bank account passwords, credit card numbers etc to steal money from the users. The crime of identity theft is extremely prevalent and many people lose their money on a daily basis as a result of it. E commerce has given users opportunity to shop online using credit cards and online merchant accounts. This has in turn increased the chances of identity theft. Other computer crimes include cyber stalking, spamming, and child pornography. Cyber stalking refers to the use of internet for stalking purposes by using personal information of a person. Cyber stalkers use internet to repeatedly harass a person and therefore it is listed as a computer crime (Pot, 1). Spamming refers to the bulk messages that are sent to users. These are unwanted messages that fill the inboxes of users. Spamming is a big business for many people and causes problems for users. Child pornography is also propagated through interne t and it is a serious offense. Children are left vulnerable because child pornography has become a business today through internet. Ethical Issues Involving Computer Crimes Computer crimes pose many ethical issues for the society. The main problem of computer crimes is that they are mostly conducted by teenagers or young people in general. This has posed many problems for the society at large. Younger generation is the

Delivering benefits (case study) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Delivering benefits (case study) - Essay Example There are two parts to a compensation package of any employee in any company, one is the motivation factor and the other is the maintenance factor and need. Motivation factors relate to the benefits such as job security, need for recognition, need for responsibility and other such related factors. The maintenance factor is one where employees need such as economic, social and physical needs. Benefits falls in this category and employees expect benefits, where benefits are not present employees may be dissatisfied. The absence of motivational factors greatly increase the expectation of maintenance factors of employees and it might be true vice versa as well, but what is more important is that corporations realize the needs for such benefits and make them readily available for all of the employees so that employee motivation levels do not go down and the corporation has no difficulty in the retention of employees because maintenance factors play a huge role when people decide if they want to switch jobs or not. At times there have been cases where people have worked at organizations only because the benefits that are being offered are great, another factor to consider is that these benefits should be customized to the needs of the employees because if that is not the case then it would not make any sense to offer such benefits. It is very important that FedEx uses group plans and gives options to its employees because that is the only effective way to reduce rising health care costs, which is one of the most important factor that employees look at before deciding whether or not to accept the job opportunity. 2. Prevention is better than cure; this stands true in the case of FedEx and every other company that offers such advantages to its employees, since the rising costs of health care has put it beyond the reach of many companies it is advised that companies work towards prevention of work related

Choose a global business and critically analyse the organisational Assignment

Choose a global business and critically analyse the organisational structure adopted by the company since 2008. Investigate the - Assignment Example Be it television or radio or video recorder or walkman. Sony Corporation is headquartered in Tokyo. It is a global player and has extended in many countries serving millions of customers across the globe. It is the leading manufacturer and the marketer of audio, communications, video and information technology for the customers and for the professional market all over the world. They have also diversified in the financial sector by giving financial services like insurance and banking to their customers. It always gave emphasis on the strategy that they are implementing for the success of their business. The success of Sony was possible through an exceptional vision â€Å"To experience the joy of advancing and applying technology for the benefit of the public" (Hill, 2011). Sony saw its success globally due to the influence that it had on the Japanese habits and culture and penetrated the global market by operating in â€Å"the Japanese way†. 2. Sony Corporation In 1946, the J apanese electrical engineers Masaru Ibuka and Akio Morita created their company Sony Corporation with only 20 employees in Tokyo. Now in 2013 the number of employees has gone up to 1,68,300. The figure makes it clear that even a small company can have its first product placed successfully in the Japanese market. The sale of electronic goods then heated up the market and thus Sony started to expand its business globally after their success in Japanese market (Hill C., 2010). The two founders in 1953 went for a three months long business tour to Europe and America where they signed agreement with the US companies and European companies and thus they penetrated into the American and European market. Later it has expanded its business to Africa and India. Sony has served both the market with their expanding business units and their products (Sony Corporation, 2013c). 3. Sony going Global Sony expanded globally with the following aim and strategies: a) Visionary Leadership: They expanded internationally with the aim to lead one vision and make a group which is flexible and efficient enough to capture the global market by learning their local customers. b) Organizational process: They wanted to spread the awareness of their products through the Global Information Systems and Communication. They even set the Research and Development Team for their long term survival so that they can develop their products as the market requires. c) Organizational Culture: Sony formed a multicultural organisation and thus it made it easy for the employees to work in such a friendly environment with no pressure for the following a particular culture. They standardized their products uniquely. d) Customized products: They even customized the products according to the customer need and this unique strategy gave them a bigger platform in the bigger market. Example: Sony laptop keyboards contain the currency signs which are different for the different countries. 3.1. Strategies undertaken by Sony Strategies that are taken in the global context are the plan of the company to position their products positively in the markets so that they stay ahead of their competitors. Sony Corporation thus made different strategies for the different markets so that they can position their products to the customers. Their corporate strategy is to lead as the global provider of electronics and entertainment. In 2008 the company came up with new strategies whose main aim was to refresh their

VALUE CHAIN MANAGEMENT EXAM PAPER - 4 OUT OF 8 MINI CASE QUESTIONS Essay

VALUE CHAIN MANAGEMENT EXAM PAPER - 4 OUT OF 8 MINI CASE QUESTIONS - Essay Example In case of mergers and acquisitions the primary aspect with regards to value chain management involves an integration of two different value chains i.e., one of the acquirer and the other of the acquired company. There needs to be certain changes in the value chain that could help in undertaking an overall improvement in the value chain of the organization (Ray, 2010, p.46). In case of Bramble the primary motive behind the acquisition of CAPS is to undertake and utilise the primary and secondary aspects of CAPS’s value chain elements to generate an overall improvement in the value chain of Brambles that would enable it to move up in the value chain. This strategy of the firm is in tune with the popular theoretical belief that every organization has its own sets of key elements that includes internal as well as external factors. In the case of Bramble the company wants to acquire the knowledge and expertise of the primary and secondary elements of the value chain that includes its human resources, fixed assets as well as intellectual property that can help in improving the value proposition of the organization by helping its move up in the value chain (Bertoncelj, 2008, p.3). Figure 1: Value Chain in Mergers and Acquisitions for CGI (Source: CGI, 2009, p.2) The figure above shows how to improve the value chain by undertaking a merger and acquisition strategy. The figure above shows how a procurement based value chain can be used to generate an improvement in the entire value chain of the organization by using the expertise in the primary and secondary activities of the acquired organization. Brambles hope to leverage upon the existing expertise as well as client base of CAPS to generate long term profitability for the organization. Brambles hopes that with the acquisition of a company engaged in downstream activities it would be able to undertake a vertical integration of its business process. This would help in opening up business opportunities of the or ganization considering the vast and immense potential of the downstream activities. The company believes that with the acquisition of CAPS and the good client base of the organization the company would be able to provide better and augmented facilities both in terms of number as well as quality as the customers would find more facilities under a single roof. This would save the customers time as well as monetary resources that would have otherwise being incurred by taking the services of a different vendor for pellets and container services. This would motivate them to choose Brambles over its competitors as it would be offering greater value proposition to the customers. This would help in generating long term sustainable competitive advantage for the organization in the long run. The vertical integration would also help in generating more value in the value chain (Slide 31-35, Planning and performance in Value chain networks). The acquisition of CAPS would also boost the levels of customer service that would help in enhancing the value proposition in accordance with Holden’s value proposition theory that states customer service as one of the key areas that can be used by organizations to enhance their value propositions. Brambles

Andres Serrano Ana Mendieta's Artworks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Andres Serrano Ana Mendieta's Artworks - Essay Example Apart from this to capture art he travels with his equipment to the most mundane places and picks up his subjects randomly yet always creating a stir (Ontani, 2000). By carrying his photographic background paper and lights in New York subways he was able to capture the homeless in their bedraggled clothes .His most recent shows contained another example of this fashion in which he photographed couples in Bizarre way and although caught in tender moments yet were provocative which Adrian Searle of the Guardian described as a "young couple, she with a strap on dildo he with a mildly expectant expression (Nairne & Howgate, 2006)". Many of his works have received much controversy especially true was in the case of Piss Christ which is a photograph of the crucifix submerged in a glass of his own urine. There are other works that too are subjected to the submerged forms of bodily fluids. Yet it is to be observed that although the much contrived Piss Christ was not appreciated when first exhibited it nevertheless sold for $ 162,000 in 1999 in a London Museum and was originally estimated at $20,000- $30,000. Still many slandered him for producing offensive art but nevertheless he got scot-free from circles who believed in artistic freedom (Stilles and Selz, 1995). Expression In Art Serranos work has received a lot of criticism it has been labeled notorious, lurid, offensive, at one point yet on the other it has also gained popularity and is famous .What makes him popular and notorious at the same time is the fact that perhaps he picks up controversial subjects for his work and has a provocative mind for the application of contrasting beautiful serene images with offensive material (Cahan & Kocur, 1996). To the mind of Serrano what at one instant is pure is also containing the darker side to it as well. There is always a twist to the most ordinary and leaves one to wonder if not everything is not as we have always imagined but there is more to it than just what we had always imagined. Applications Of Seranos Work Some of his most famous works are seen as Blood and Semen III on metal band Metallica's " load" Piss and Blood is used on Metallica's "Re Load" Indirect Approach: Serrano's has a very indirect approach to all his art work and he utilizes this in a very cool and subtle manner. Much of his mature work began as early as in the 80's. His focus initially remained mainly on catholic iconography. However he soon turned his attention to be more taboo stuff. This included his use of bodily fluids for his artwork. For much of his creations he received death threats and hate mails. Yet this did not deter the artist in the least and he remained focused on his work as before. The fuss created for his artwork only resulted in the increase of price of his work pieces. Piss Christ It is a 30 by 40 inch color photograph of the crucifix in which the artist has submerged it in the body fluid semen. This piece of art met many disagreeable circles who voiced their opinions very openly calling him a

Letters of Recommendation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Letters of Recommendation - Essay Example His valuable contributions with the past employers speak about his personality and attitude towards work. He has proven ability in motivating and interacting effectively with all levels of staff and management. I have noted him as a person having strong business acumen along with high level of moral and ethical standards. I felt Mr. has diverse skill sets such as mutual respect, good communication, cooperation, coordination, share responsibility required to become successful manager as well as to create a good team. He has an excellent understanding of audit review procedures, financial analysis, financial reconciliations, maintenance and control of general ledger that are specific to the profession. I sense that his technical expertise along with the leadership attitude will grant him all the desired success. Yours graduate business program would give him the golden opportunity to explore and unfold the art and craft of business profession. I have observed him setting himself reachable goals by generating new ideas, new strategies, gaining more experience, improving his skills and working on the weaknesses. Perhaps his strongest abilities are the way he manages the projects, the people and the situations. He would be a strong addition to your Business School. He has always been attracted towards scope and difficulty of tasks, decision-making competencies, room for independent action, job variability, ownership, work conditions and environment. I believe that this unique blend of experiences has made him a man with an original point of view. This blend has given him a broader perspective and a good understanding of life and a goal to aim for. He has consistently demonstrated the necessary skills in the past to handle the intense academic work required in your MBA program. I believe that being a part of your department would not only enhance his career opportunities, but also help him realize his

Ana Code of Ethics Essay Example for Free

Ana Code of Ethics Essay The ANA code of ethics as described in the book of Conceptual Foundations as: ANAs Code of Ethics for Nurses, 2001 * 1. The nurse, in all professional relationships, practices with compassion and respect for the inherent dignity, worth, and uniqueness of every individual, unrestricted by considerations of social or economic status, personal attributes, or the nature of health problems. * 2. The nurses primary commitment is to the person, whether an individual, family, group, or community. * 3. The nurse promotes, advocates for, and strives to protect the health, safety, and rights of the patient. * 4. The nurse is responsible and accountable for individual nursing practice and determines the appropriate delegation of tasks consistent with the nurses obligation to provide optimum patient care. * 5. The nurse owes the same duties to self as to others, including the responsibility to preserve integrity and safety, to maintain competence, and to continue personal and professional growth. * 6. The nurse participates in establishing, maintaining, and improving health care environments and conditions of employment conducive to the provision of quality health care and consistent with the values of the profession through individual and collective action. * 7. The nurse participates in the advancement of the profession through contributions to practice, education, administration, and knowledge development. * 8. The nurse collaborates with other health professionals and the public in promoting community, national, and international efforts to meet health needs. * 9. The profession of nursing, as represented by associations and their members, is responsible for articulating nursing values, for maintaining the integrity of the profession and its practice, and for shaping social policy. (Ceasia, Friberg p. 285) Description In the broadest sense, ethics are the principles that guide an individual, group, or profession in conduct. Although nurses do make independent decisions regarding patient care, they are still responsible to the profession as a whole in how those decisions are made. From the earliest concept of nursing, the proper behavior and conduct of a nurse was closely scrutinized. Florence Nightingale wrote of specific issues of conduct and moral behavior. The Nightingale pledge that was composed in 1893 by nursing instructor Lystra Gretter includes the vow to abstain from whatever is deleterious and mischievous and will not take or knowingly administer any harmful drug. Over the last 100 years, nursing has evolved into a very complex professional field. Nurses are now faced with life and death decisions, sometimes on an hourly basis. Medical care has advanced to the point that new technology with its potential benefit or harm to a patient changes constantly. Although the private conduct of a nurse is no longer controlled by the employer, the effects of that lifestyle on the nurses ability to think and respond to patients in different situations. The study of ethics is actually a branch of philosophy. The word ethics is derived from the Greek term ethos which means customs, habitual usage, conduct, and character. The study of ethics has led to the identification of basic concepts including relation of basic concepts including rights, autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, justice, and fidelity. Understanding these concepts assists the nurse with making decisions during difficult situations. Webster defines a right as something to which one has a just claim or the power or privilege to which one is justly entitled. Patient rights have evolved to the point that federal legislation has been passed in the United States to protect a patients individual rights. A Patients Bill of Rights was initially developed by the American Hospital Association in 1973 and revised in1992. All hospitals are now required by law to inform patients of these rights upon admission to the hospital. Autonomy comes from the Latin auto meaning self and nomy which means control. Individuals must be given the rights to assist in their own decision making. This ethical concept has led to the need for informed consent. Sometimes patients religious or cultural beliefs lead them to make decisions regarding their own care that may seem controversial or even dangerous. However, the concept of autonomy gives them the right to make those decisions unless they are mentally impaired. Beneficence means to do good, not harm, to other people. Nonmaleficence is the concept of preventing intentional harm. Both of these ethical concepts relate directly to patient care. In the American Nurses Association Code for Nurses, there is a specific charge to protect patients by specifying that nurses should report unsafe, illegal, or unethical practices by any person. Nurses are often faced with making decisions about extending life with technology, which might not be in the best interest of the patient. Often the concept of weighing potential benefit to the patient against potential harm is used in making these difficult decisions, along with the patients own stated wishes. The word justice is closely tied with the legal system. However, the word refers to the obligation to be fair to all people. In 2001, healthcare economics have hospitals and other providers stretching their resources to their limits. Economic decisions about healthcare resources have to be made based on the number of patients who would benefit. The potential of rationing care to the frail elderly, poor, and disabled creates an ethical dilemma that is sure to become even more complicated in the future. Fidelity refers to the concept of keeping a commitment. Although the word is more closely used to describe a marital relationship, fidelity is the concept of accountability. What is the nurses responsibility to his or her patient, employer, society, or government? Privacy and confidentiality are concepts that could be challenged under the concept of fidelity. If a nurse is aware of another healthcare giver who is impaired, but the circumstances are private or confidential, how is the conflict resolved? As a general rule, nurses are employed by a hospital, clinic, or private practice. Decisions that are made about patient care are not totally independent. Every decision creates a ripple effect and touches someone else in the health care field. One of the purposes of a code of ethics is to help nurses keep perspective and a balanced view regarding decisions. An example of violation of code of ethics is an 18yr old girl comes into the emergency room with her mother and has abdominal pain. The doctor or nurse does not ask the patient if it is ok for the mother to know the entire patient’s information since she is 18 yrs. old. The mother is under the impression that her daughter is not sexually active. When the urinalysis comes back the nurse explains that they are going to do further tests but the abdominal pain is probably due to her being pregnant. The mother is in the room when the news is told violating the patient’s rights. The professional nursing practices involves working towards the outcomes of safe, quality, evidence based practice and confidentiality. (Styles, A 2008). Overall, I think all nurses try to do the right thing on a daily basis and their decisions are based on a reflection of consequences and moral principles. The ANA helps professional nursing by supporting nurses and providing a framework within which nurses can make ethical judgments and decisions to fulfill their daily responsibilities. References: Styles, A. (2008) The professional nursing practice. http://www.buzzle.com/articles/ethics-in-nursing-jobs-and-profession.html Ceasia, Friberg. (2011) The ANA code of ethics. Conceptual Foundations p.285

School of Education and Child Development Essay Example for Free

School of Education and Child Development Essay The School of Education and Child Development in Drury University aims to provide a teacher education program that would engender educated professionals who would uphold the importance of education and exert great efforts in order to become a productive contributor to the learning community. Future educators are trained in the university to make sound choices and judgments for the advancement of learning and education, to be instrumental in the teaching and learning process to help in the education of other people, and acknowledge the importance and significant roles that children play in the global community. (Drury University, 2004) The university takes on the future of the coming generations as their responsibility and acknowledges the functions of teachers in the realization of this responsibility. Therefore, the teacher education program of the university was designed not only teach future educators the nominal aspect of teaching, but also to encourage commitment and dedication to their line of industry. Part of this commitment is to take on various roles in order to become influential to the students and their education, knowledgeable about the lessons they teach, and the strategies and approaches that should applied in teaching process. Moreover, the teacher education program aspires to inculcate the ideal representation of the educational institution as one that nourishes learning, creativity, and uprightness and reaffirm the teacher’s view of himself as a valuable part of the school. (Drury University, 2004) Another significant objective upheld by the teacher education program is the much-needed participation of teachers to the development and enhancement of educational institutions, more specifically public schools. Teachers are persuaded to be actively involved in the reformation of the schools in order to affect desirable educational programs and learning outcomes. Moreover, the university also encourages not only the education of future educators in the university but also their ability to be able to apply everything that they have learned in the public school setting. (Drury University, 2004) The vision and philosophy of the university’s teacher education program is primarily geared towards the contributory aspect of teaching to society as a valuable member of the learning community. As a future educator, one must be able to give back to society what was learned and experienced during one’s stay in the university under the teacher education program. This may be accomplished by being instrumental in changing and modifying the face of education by improvement and development. Through this, the university is able to produce professional educators that cultivate quality and meaningful education that shapes the future of the coming generations. The teacher education program has set out several guidelines or standards that determine the competencies that students must achieve throughout training under the program. For instance, teachers must be able to focus on the students, and as part of the educational institution, they must be able to identify and provide for the needs of the students. Moreover, teachers must be able to acknowledge that students are different from one another, while at the same time exerting equal time and effort in facilitating learning within the learning environment. In addition, the learning process should be implemented during instruction in such a way that it meets the developmental needs of the students as a whole (physical, social, mental, etc. ). (Drury University, 2004) The teacher takes on multifarious roles such as the managing the classroom, monitoring the learning progress of students, etc. but most of all, the teacher is should be the one who facilitates learning through appropriate lessons and challenging activities, motivating and stimulating learning, and sound judgment and assessment of student progress. All these, of course, are grounded on the standards and objectives of education and the learning outcomes that the education program has established in the core curriculum. Aside from working with the students to affect learning, the teacher is also groomed to collaborate with other stakeholders that regard the teaching profession important as a means of educating the students. For instance, teachers must be able to establish meaningful relationships with other professional educators in order to gain insight and additional knowledge in being an effective educator within the learning community. Teachers, throughout the course of handling students from different family backgrounds and culture, must also build relationships with the parents of their students. This is part of the parent’s involvement in the education of their children, as a valuable instrument in the follow-up phase of learning within the family environment. (Drury University, 2004) The teacher education program is primarily based on established principles and standards such as the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS), National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE), the School Development Model of Comer, and postulates for the reform of teacher education by Goodlad. (Drury University, 2004) The university has achieved a highly competent teacher education program through its establishment according to the standards of NBPTS, which claims to uphold the values and knowledge that teachers should be learning (NBPTS, 2008). Moreover, the university’s teacher education program was also developed under the guidance of the NCATE standards, which aims to provide quality programs for educational institutions that embody what the students have to learn in order to achieve professional standards in preparation for the future (NCATE, 2008). The conceptual framework of the university’s teacher education program maybe understood by reviewing the eleven domains of teacher education. These eleven domains embody that learning outcomes and performance appraisals that the future teacher should accomplish before deployment to the actual school setting. The acquisition of relevant knowledge, such as the basics of teaching, the understanding of the needs and differences of students, the ability to develop challenging instructional strategies and materials, the development of a pertinent course curriculum that is fitting to the global scenario, the learning of schools for the employment of technological tools and recent instruments to facilitate learning, are just some of the eleven domains that are included in the conceptual framework of the university’s teacher education program. (Drury University, 2008) The knowledge of the university’s mission and philosophy, teaching program, and the conceptual framework for the teacher education program, is all-important in understanding the roles and responsibilities that future educators should accomplish throughout their college education as a preservice teacher. Moreover, future educators are informed of the things that they should acquire in order to be a valuable member of the learning community. References Drury University. (2004).Conceptual Framework for Initial Certification of Teachers. Retrieved April 1, 2008, from Drury University. Website: http://www. drury. edu/academics/undergrad/education/pdf/bluebook. pdf NBPTS. (2008). National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. Retrieved April 1, 2008, from the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. Website: http://www. nbpts. org/ NCATE. (2008). Standards. Retrieved April 1, 2008, from the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. Website: http://www. ncate. org/public/standards. asp

Small And Medium Enterprises And Their Characteristics Management Essay

Small And Medium Enterprises And Their Characteristics Management Essay In the modern world economy, business transactions can be conducted within the same city, the same country, or even between two countries. The term of internationalization has been adopted by many researchers, for instance Bell (1995): A firms engagement in a specific foreign market develops according to an establishment chain, i.e. at the start no export activities are performed in the market, then export takes place via independent representatives, later through a sales subsidiary, and, eventually manufacturing may follow. Internationalization has become a significant research topic for business academics in the past forty years. A substantial amount of research has focused on multinational enterprises (Dunning, 1973; Markusen, 1995; Kogut and Zander, 2003), with a growing interest in the internationalization of small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) (Oviatt and McDougall, 1994). Meanwhile small- and medium-sized companies (SMEs) have been believed to be significant in supporting economics improvement within a country (Mazzarol, Volery, Doss, and Thein, 1999). For example, in the Netherlands, SMEs account 98.8% of all private-sector companies, contribute 31.6% to Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and employ 55% of the total workforce (EIM Business Policy Research, 1999). Furthermore, obtaining sales outside their own domestic market is a goal of many small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and their governments (Economic Development Board, 1993). This thesis will be concentrated on the process of internationalization of SMEs, and especially the barriers of internationalization and motivations for export activities. In fact, SMEs are able to develop abroad since nowadays countries all around the world have become almost indistinguishable in terms of cultures and institutional settings (Johanson and Vahlne, 2003). 1.2 Problem statement According to problem indication, this there for leads to the following problem statement; What are the barriers and motivations of internationalization with regard to small and medium sized enterprises? 1.3 Research Questions The following questions will be posed in order to draw conclusions with respect to the problem statement: What are the characteristics of small and medium enterprises? How do the enterprises internationalize? What are the challenges and drivers of internationalization? 1.4 Research Method and Data Collection 1.4.1 Research Method This thesis will use a literature study as the method of research. To be able to answer the research questions, the research method that shall be used is the literature study. To develop a theoretical framework, exploratory studies are used in this research. It is the most ideal type of research for obtaining a clear understanding of the phenomena of interest (Sekarana, 2003). 1.4.2 Data Colletion Most of the resources used are secondary data which is data that have already been gathered by other researchers in the past (Sekarana, 2010). So far the author has found several journals and articles discussing internationalization of small and medium enterprises as the main source of this thesis. Firstly, literature based on drivers and motivations of internationalization of small and medium enterprises were sought using several search engines such as Google Scholar, and also database such as JSTOR. The following keywords were used: Internationalization, SMEs, Drivers and Motivations. These keywords were used separately and in combinations with each other. Secondly, more literature, articles and statistical data were found from the internet. Google is used as the search engine. Finally, to determine the quality of the literature, it is important to look at the number of citations from other high quality journal included in this literature. Another way to determine if literature is trustworthy is by looking at the references. 1.5 Structure of the Thesis In the remaining chapters the structure will be as follows: Chapter 2 shall review and analyze some of the definitions of small and medium enterprises and their characteristics, referring research question Q1. Chapter 3 will examine the theories and the process of internationalization. In chapter 4, I will investigate the opportunities and barriers to internationalization. In the final chapter, conclusions will be drawn and the problem statement will be answered. 2. SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES 2.1. Definition of SMEs There is no single, uniformly acceptable definition of a small firm (Storey, 1994). However, some definitions are very depending on criteria such as number of employees and turn over. In 1971 Bolton Report (Dawes Haydock in Frank, 1999) attempted to overcome the problem of small firm definition by formulating what it called an economic definition and a statistical definition. Under the economic definition, a firm is regarded as small if it satisfied the following three criteria: they had a relatively small share of their market place; they were managed by owners or part owners in a personalized way, and not through the medium of a formalized management structure; they were independent, in the sense of not forming part of a large enterprise. The Committee also formulated a statistical definition which was designed to address three main issues. The first was to quantify the size for the small-firm sector and its contribution to economic aggregates such as gross domestic product (GDP), employment, exports and innovation. The second purpose was to compare the extent to which the small enterprise sectors economic contribution has changed over time. Thirdly, applying the statistical definition, this allows a comparison to be made among the contributions of small firms in one country with that of other nations. Furthermore, there is a lack of consensus on how to define SME (Gibb, 1993; Curran and Blackburn, 2001) as each country defines SME differently. For example, in the US and Canada, SMEs are generally defined as firms with fewer than 500 employees. In Japan, different headcount ceilings are used for manufacturing (up to 300 employees), wholesale (up to 150) and retail (up to 50). In this thesis we use the classification given by the Commission of the European Communities (2003/361/EC 2003). According to the European Union (2003), an SME is an enterprise with fewer than 250 employees and a turnover no more than 50 million Euros or a balance sheet total of no more than 43 million Euros. Small enterprises employ less than 50 and micro enterprises less than 10 employees. 2.2. Characteristics of SMEs SMEs are always one of the remarkable subjects for the researchers. It may be distinguished from larger firms by a number of key characteristics. Researchers have drawn some characteristic for the SMEs. Characteristics often discussed as typical of SMEs are as followed: Limited resources (Welsh and White, 1981). A small and medium enterprise generally has limited resources, which means they did not have money to purchase the required machinery and to hire many workers. This is extremely true for new starts-up due to an absence or lack of track record on the firm to entice potential investors and bankers. Hence, it is highly dependent on the capability of the owner to generate resources. Informal management style (Kotey, 1999 and Slade, 2005). For small and medium enterprises, the management is usually informal. The owner has to do almost everything and employees are normally expected to be able to duty as generalists as there is no clear division of tasks. Flexibility (Aragon-Sanchez and Sanchez-Marin, 2005). The enterprise has more flexibility to adapt to changes in the environment due to its size and informal structure. It is also vulnerable to grow in the enterprise environment. For example, any changes in government policy or technology might have a strong influence on the firms since instant changes require additional resources or capital. This might become a constraint to the firms to compete and sustain  itself in the market. Dependence on individual decision makers (Feltham and Barnett, 2005). The firms are managed and operated by the owner. The entrepreneurs of the business lead the company and play a role as both employee and employer. The growth of the firms is determined by the owner. Decision making is commonly done by the owner. 3. INTERNATIONALIZATION Different approaches and perspectives have been contributed to the literature firms internationalization (Morgan and Katsikeas, 1997), and these issues have been researched over three decades (Etermad, 2004). For instance, a gradual perspective of SME internationalization is explained in the Uppsala Model, and the Finnish-POM Models (Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul, 1975; Johanson and Vahlne, 1977). The other perspective is that SME internationalization is explained by an economic view (Dunning, 1977), and another view is described by a network approach (Kenny and Fahy, 2004; Majkgard and Sharma, 1998; Welch and Welch, 1998). The last view is described as the International New Venture perspective (Oviatt and McDougall, 1994; Zahra, Ireland, and Hitt, 2000). All these models are briefly discussed below. Of the gradual approaches, the Uppsala Model initiated by Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul (1975) and further developed by Johanson and Vahlne (1990 and 1977) is widely used to describe pattern of small firms internationalization (Andersson, 2004). In Uppsala Model, they make the distinction between state and change aspect of internationalization variables. They argue that the present state of the firm is the important factor in explaining future changes and subsequent stages. The state aspects are represented by the firms market commitment to the foreign market and the market knowledge about foreign market and operations. The change aspect is seen as commitment decision and the performance of current business activities. The concept of market commitment is assumed to be composed of two factors: Firstly, the amount of resources committed, for example, the size of investment in the market (marketing, personnel, organization etc.); Secondly, the degree of commitment, for instance, the difficulty of finding an alternative use for the resources and transforming them to practice. Market knowledge is seen as information about markets and operations which is somehow stored reasonable retrieval in the minds of individuals inside the firm, in computer memories or in written reports. International activities require both general knowledge about market operations and market specific knowledge. Current business activities are the prime source of experimental knowledge for the firm. It could be argued that experience could be gained alternatively through the hiring of the personnel with experience or through advice from persons with experience. Commitment decisions depend very much on experience since they are a response to perceived uncertainty and opportunities on the market. Decisions to commit further resources to specific foreign operations will more often be taken if experimental knowledge increases. This implies that additional market commitment as a rule will be made in small incremental steps because its takes time to gain experimental knowledge about foreign markets. The Uppsala model concentrates on the gradual acquisition, integration and use of knowledge about foreign market. According to this model, lack of knowledge is an important obstacle in the development of international operations and such knowledge can be acquired mainly through operations abroad. The gradual acquisition of knowledge increase foreign commitments. The second gradual model distinguishes three dimensions of internationalization (Luostarinen, 1979). First is Product (P), which describes what in terms of the firms goods, services, know-how and systems. Second is the Operation mode (O) which relates to how firms operate such as through agents, subsidiaries, licensing and management contracts. Third is Market (M), which describes where in relation to the selection of markets and takes into account political, cultural and physical differences. The organizational capacity dimension was a later addition to describe organizational structure, resources, finance and personnel (Welch and Luostarinen, 1988). Nonetheless, neither gradual model addresses the issues of networking. The networking view concentrates on non-hierarchical systems where enterprises invest to support and monitor their role in international networks. Referred to as the network perspective, this research draws on the theories of social exchange and resource dependence, and emphases on firm performance in the context of a network of interorganisational and interpersonal relationships (Axelsson and Easton 1992). Such relationships can include customers, competitors, suppliers, private and public support agencies, and friends, family and so on. Organizational boundaries therefore incorporate both business and social relationships. The theory suggests three methods of internationalization: International extension, explains how a company initially establishes connections with networks in other countries; Penetration, the firms develops the relationships that arise from those networks, which is described as the penetration method; International integration, the time when the company integrates the networks in different countries. Based to this research, internationalization determined by on an organizations set of network relationships rather than a firm-specific advantage. Therefore, externalization (rather than internalization) occurs. The network approach offers a complementary perspective to FDI theory given the latter does not account for the role and impact of social relationships in business transactions (Granvetter 1985). Also, internationalization decisions and activities in the network approach appear as patterns of behavior influenced by various network members, while FDI theory assumes coherent strategic decision-making. The network perspective introduces a more multilateral element to internationalization (Johanson and Vahlne 1992, p.12). Interestingly, this perspective has evolved from Johanson and Vahlnes early work, and reflects their ongoing research exploring the management of foreign market entry. For example, their (1992) study of internationalization in the situation of exchange networks found that even if foreign market entry is the gradual process (supporting the Uppsala model), it follow from interaction, and the development and maintenance of relationships over time. These findings support Sharma and Johanson (1987), who found that technical consulting firms operate in a network of connected relationships between organizations, where relationships become bridges to foreign markets and offer firms with the prospect and incentive to internationalize. The International New Venture theory emerged in the mid-nineties in response to the recognition that many firms do not go along with the gradual models in their internationalization process (Etemad, 2004a; Kenny et al., 2004). These firms are called Born Global (Knight and Cavusgil, 1996; Rennie, 1993), whilst Oviatt et al., (1994) identify them as Global Start-ups or International New Ventures (INV) firms. This model focuses on the age and not on the size of the firms and suggests that the INVs retain unique assets and capabilities that enable firms with limited resources to venture faster into foreign markets. Furthermore, Coviello and McAuley (1999) argue the internationalization happens gradually. With his extensive study of internationalization, Gripsurd (1990) points out that there is a three-stage model describing how an organization develops its international business study. First, the organization starts as a potential exporter, where they do not yet have the opportunity to export any of their goods or services. During this stage, the organization is still producing and distributing its products in the domestic market. Moreover, in the second stage, the firm is known as a passive exporter, where it has the opportunity to export its goods or services. However, they only represent upon request; therefore, there is no self-initiative. To continue, in the third stage, the firm is known as an active exporter, when it is increasing export activities abroad. With respect to the explanations, it is clear that Bell (1995) and Gripsrud (1990) mainly focus on the idea that internationalization develops in a number of stages. It happens gradually, not just with a single movement. 3.1 Process of Internationalization There are six steps that have been used for understanding about the internationalization of the small and medium enterprises. This process is not mattered only for the small and medium firms but applied in larger firms as well (Moberg and Palm, 1995 in Jennie and Zetterwall). These steps involved respectively, why internationalization (motives), company situation (SWOT), what (product and service), where (market selection), how (entry modes), and when (point of entrance). 3.1.1. Find out motives for internationalization. When a company goes internationalization it is often driven by certain stimuli or stimulus. Sometimes external and internal pressure such as competition, excess capacity of resources and a small and decline home markets put pressure on the company for becoming international. Other time firms go international because they want to. They have a unique product that is not widely available from international competitors or a technological advance in a special field (Czincota Ronkainen, 1995). 3.1.2. Clearly define the current situation of the enterprise (through conducting a SWOT analysis). To enter a foreign market does not mean new opportunities, but also a totally new situation with new environment and cultures. To find out whether a firm is ready to meet and handle this new situation or not, a complete analysis of the company situation has to be done by using SWOT analysis (Thompson Strickland, 1995, in Jennie Zetterwall). Companys economy, production, personnel, marketing, international experience and language capabilities are some factors those must be analyzed into SWOT analysis (Moberg Palm, 1995 in Jennie Zetterwall). Potential markets and marketing environment have to be analyzed to find attractive opportunities and avoid environmental threats. 3.1.3. Decide on the product or service enterprise wish to integrate in this process. The success of the firm depends on its products offered and on how well the firm is able to differentiate the product or service from what the competitors offer. When a company enters in a new market it should start with a small share of the assortment, mainly quality products or already established products. 3.1.4. Select the right market to penetrate. When firm decides to enter foreign markets, the customers and market conditions are quite different from their home market. That stage firms need to enhance international marketing strategies considering different aspect of the marketing such as product, price, promotion, place, logistics, competition, and so on. The firms strategies decided, whether use to the existing product or develop a new product to serve the foreign market. A firm operating the international marketing should not only identify the product for different markets but should also develop suitable strategies for growth such products. Whether a single standardized can be offered worldwide or a customize product need to be develop for each market is the most significant product decision that firms has to do while operating in international markets. In the international market, decision related to quality, packaging and labeling of product require specific attention and consideration. Product strategy of the firm in in ternational markets is often influenced by cultural context (Joshi, 2005). Therefore, it is a responsibility of the manager/owner to know the taste and preferences of the customer in a target market, and formulate the product strategy according to the marketing conditions. Sometime color, size, and packaging of the product play vital role in the success of the firm (Joshi, 2005). 3.1.5. Decide on mode of entry. After the selection of the market has been done, the company has to decide how to approach the foreign market. A firm can, for example choose to sell directly to the final consumer, to sell indirectly through distributors and/ or agents, or to produce locally in foreign countries. The choice depend on factors such as, resource of the exporting company, the characteristics of the product, the goal of the internationalization, the distribution culture in foreign markets, and the number and demand of the customer (Czinkota Ronkainen, 1995). 3.1.6. Find the right moment to do it. Furthermore, a company has to determine when to enter the foreign market. The company must be sure that market is ready, that the company has enough resources and the right market channel and product for specific market (Moberg Palm, 1995 in Jennie Zetterwall). Meanwhile, Masurel and Montfort (2006) explored the changes between stages in the life cycle of small and medium-sized enterprises in the professional services sector. They distinguish four different, subsequent stages in the life cycle. 1. Starting; 2. Growth; 3. Maturity; 4. Decline. They found that the first three stages represent an increase in diversification in sales, increase in differentiation of labor force, and increase in labor productivity. In the last stage, the diversification in sales, differentiations in labor force, and labor productivity all drop. As growth as one crucial key in this life cycle, SMEs starts internationalization which has become more and more relevant to the competitiveness of enterprises of all sizes. Recently, SMEs that start with a global strategy can change swiftly to take advantage of cross-border activities, which offers chances not only for revenue growth but also the exchange of knowledge and the development of capabilities, thereby strengthe ning the long-term competitiveness of the firm. 3.2. The Models of Internationalization Tookey (1969) developed an early example of modeling progression through various steps, pre-dating the Uppssalla model; this involved the advancement of the firm from exporting, to international marketing and finally international business The behavioural approach of the Uppsala views internationalization as having four stages (Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul 1975, Johanson and Vahlne 1977) while Bilkey and Tesar (1977) identify six steps, Aijo (1977), Cavusgil (1980) and Reid (1981) identify five, while Czinkota (1982) identifies six. Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul (1975), Johanson and Vahlne (1977) Stage 1: No regular export activities; Stage 2: Export via agents; Stage 3: Establishment of a sales subsidiary; Stage 4: Production or manufacturing in a foreign market. Bilkey and Tesar (1977) Stage 1: Management not interested in exporting; Stage 2: Management willing to fill unsolicited orders but not effort made to explore feasibility of actively exporting; Stage 3: Management actively explores feasibility of active exporting; Stage 4: Firm exports experimentally to psychologically close county; Stage 5: Firm is now an experienced exporter; Stage 6: Management explore feasibility of exporting to psychologically distant countries. Cavusgil (1980) Stage 1: Firm sells only in domestic market; Stage 2: Pre-export phase, the firm searches for information and evaluates feasibility of starting to export; Stage: Experimental involvement, firm begins exporting to psychologically close country; Stage 4: Active involvement, exporting to more new countries, direct exporting and increase in sales volume. Czinkota (1982) Stage 1: The completely uninterested firm; Stage 2: The partially interested firm; Stage 3: The exploring firm; Stage 4: The experimental firm; Stage 5: The experienced small exporter; Stage 6: The experienced large exporter. Reid (1981) Stage 1: Export awareness, problem of opportunity recognition and arousal of need; Stage 2: Export intention, motivation, attitude, beliefs and exporting about exporting; Stage 3: Export trial, personal experience from limited exporting; Stage 4: Export evaluation, results from engaging in exporting; Stage 5: Export acceptance, adoption of exporting or rejection of exporting. 4. DRIVERS AND BARRIERS TO INTERNATIONALIZATION Drivers of Internationalization There must be some motivations behind the decision to go international. Leonidou, Katsikeas and Percy (1998) determine that organizations are typically willing to market themselves for four reasons. First, it may be due to slow growth in the domestic economy as evidenced by a reduction in the number of the home market opportunities. Consequently, an organization will look for other opportunities by entering new international markets (Chandra, Styles and Wilkinson, 2009). Second, there may be a trade deficit followed by currency devaluation and a number of export restrictions. Third, the world trading system may become more liberalized leading to a minimization of international market entry barriers. Forth, it might be more intensive global competition in the global business environment. All these trends have developed the dynamic of exports. The creation of exports is not only due to the self-initiative of a company, but also by the government. This is also confirmed by Gripsrud (1990) who suggests that the government of a country may believe their firms to think globally by expanding their service areas to foreign markets, due to the expectation of an increasing volume of exports from the country. Thus, it will help the economy of that country. Furthermore, OECD (2009) also analyzed motivations for small and medium-sized internationalization including growth motives, knowledge-related motives, network or stoical ties and domestic or regional market factors. 4.1.1 Growth Motives Growth opportunities associated with international markets were identified as a key driver of firm internationalization in several recent studies (Orser et al., 2008), (Rundh, 2007), (Barnes et al., 2006), (Reynolds, 2007). The possibility of growth in other markets and increased profit opportunities from international expansion were highlighted as key stimuli for exporting. Firms overseas venturing decision also seems to be motivated by a need for business growth, profits, an increased market size, a stronger market position, and to reduce dependence on a single or small number of markets. The growth motives is very closely linked to maximizing returns and minimizing costs in purchasing, production and sales. 4.1.2 Knowledge-related Motives Garvey and Brennan (2006) suggest that knowledge assets both push and pull SMEs into international markets. The push dimension pertains to the importance of managers previous international experience and related management capacity factors. There are also related findings on the internationalization triggering effects of knowledge aspects, including RD investment, innovation capabilities, unique product or technology, and language skills; and firm resource base, as indicated by such proxies as size, age, and experience. 4.1.3 Network or Social Ties and Supply Chain Links Camara and Simoes (2008) have highlighted the importance of network/social ties and supply chain links in triggering SMEs first internationalization step and extending internationalization processes. The research studies particularly reported the stimulating effect on export activity of firms soft assets, including social and network capital, some of which may have accrued through managers immigrant background and associated links. 4.1.4 Domestic or Regional Market Drivers There is also support from recent relevant research (Lopez, 2007), (Staoian, 2006) on the push effects of firms limited or stagnating domestic market on internationalization behavior. The enterprise differed significantly in their export tendency, with export propensity increasing in regions with less favorable domestic conditions, local incentives to export and good export infrastructure. Recent evidence from Chile and Indonesia further suggest a greater tendency to export among firms from sectors characterized by high levels of export intensity and presence of foreign buyers. The Indonesian finding on the importance of foreign buyers presence is significant as it reinforces the earlier observed need to boost SMEs role in global value chains through facilitating their integration into production or supply systems of foreign affiliates of larger firms (OECD, 2008). 4.2. Barriers to Internationalization In order to identify the term internationalization with the main focus of the thesis, Coviello and McAuley (1999) stated that not only large organizations, but also small and medium sized organizations, can become global. In addition, they also state that the international expansion of an SME is certainly useful when it comes to contributing to the economic growth and prosperity of a country. However, one thing that should be remembered is that not every SME is ready to expand into international markets. Despite the fact that they have small or medium sized organizations, there must be some factors and limitations in terms of finding global market opportunities. There have been a number of studies which have focused on the barriers to internationalization (Leonidou, 1995; Campbell 1994; Katsikeas and Morgan, 1994, Morgan 1997). The barriers to internationalization can be categorized into five broad areas: financial, managerial, market based (including both the domestic and international markets), industry specific and firm specific. It is widely acknowledged that barriers to internationalization can exist at any stage in the internationalization process (Morgan, 1997). Furthermore, the perception of the barriers can vary in intensity depending on the degree of internationalization of the individual firm (Burton and Schlegeliclch, 1987; Cavusgil, 1984; Kedia and Chhokar, 1986; Katsikeas and Morgan, 1994). 4.2.1 Financial Barriers Limitations in finance and related physical resources have continued to be highlighted as a leading barrier to the internationalization of SMEs. It including financial barriers in general (Campbell, 1994; Burpitt Rondinelli, 2000), resource availability ( Karagozoglu Lindell, 1998), cost of operating overseas (Bilkey, 1978), and limited access to capital and credit ( Buckley, 1989; Coviello McAuley, 1999). The pertinent evidence include the observed disadvantages faced by enterprises international new ventures or early-stage SME exporters, relative to their more established counterparts, in regard to accessing operating and term loans and the terms thereof. Lack of capital requirements and other firm resources and limited access to key infrastructure were also reported by SMEs. 4.2.2. Managerial Barriers Difficulties arising from limited managerial knowledge base emerge as a top barrier to SME internationalization in several recent surveys. Managerial barriers are including managerial attitudes (Andersson, 2000; Burpitt Rondinelli, 2000), lack of international experience and skills (Karagozoglu Lindell), limited management time (Coviello McAuley, 1999; Buckley, 1989), commitment, and partnership difficulties. Managerial risk perceptions and lac